Abstract
Parental care consists of the dynamic physiological and behavioral interactions between parents and offspring. These interactions can take on many different forms both within and across species, and vary dependent on the particular developmental needs of offspring. Studies of the neuroendocrine factors that shape the parental brain indicate activation within multiple hormonal, neuropeptide and neuroanatomical pathways. In the first part of this chapter, we will highlight specific hormone, hormone-receptor and neurobiological circuits involved in maternal and paternal behavior, with a particular emphasis on estrogen, oxytocin, prolactin and dopaminergic influences. We will also discuss evidence for genetic and environmental effects on the parental brain and behavior. In the second part of the chapter, we will illustrate the consequences of variation in prenatal and postnatal parent-offspring interactions in the context of perinatal programming hypotheses of development, and describe potential molecular mechanisms that may contribute to the long-term influence of parental care.