Abstract
The introduction of non-native species occurs within a context of other anthropogenic impacts: thus a holistic approach is needed to understand interactive effects. Installation of shoreline protection structures is increasing in response to rising sea levels and increasing frequency of intense storms. Shoreline hardening structures can facilitate establishment of non-native species with multiple potential consequences. We measured abundances of both native and non-native Codium, a green macroalga, on natural hard substrates (oyster reefs) and artificial substrates (bulkheads and revetments) in two estuaries and assessed the effects of each Codium species on nitrogen fixation and net N-2 fluxes. Native C. decorticatum was the most abundant (86 %) Codium on oyster reefs, while exotic C. fragile dominated (99 %) artificial substrates. N-2 production via denitrification was greater than nitrogen fixation for both species and the net N-2 production associated with non-native C. fragile was greater than with native C. decorticatum. Comparing our results with surveys conducted in the 1940s before C. fragile had invaded, indicates that non-native Codium has outcompeted native Codium on artificial substrates, but that natural substrate provided by oyster reefs remains a refuge for native Codium. Although shoreline hardening with artificial structures can reduce ecosystem services provided by coastal marsh and other habitats, an unexpected beneficial consequence was the N-2 production associated with the non-native Codium, which has the potential to mitigate anthropogenic nutrient loading. Our results illustrate that the interaction between multiple anthropogenic impacts can be positive, and indicate that non-ephemeral macroalgae could be an overlooked component in nitrogen removal from marine ecosystems by enhancing denitrification.