Abstract
The addition of incorrect agri-food powders to a production line due to human error is a large safety concern in food and drink manufacturing, owing to incorporation of allergens in the final product. This work combines near-infrared spectroscopy with machine-learning models for early detection of this problem. Specifically, domain adaptation is used to transfer models from spectra acquired under stationary conditions to moving samples, thereby minimizing the volume of labelled data required to collect on a production line. Two deep-learning domain-adaptation methodologies are used: domain-adversarial neural networks and semisupervised generative adversarial neural networks. Overall, accuracy of up to 96.0% was achieved using no labelled data from the target domain moving spectra, and up to 99.68% was achieved when incorporating a single labelled data instance for each material into model training. Using both domain-adaptation methodologies together achieved the highest prediction accuracies on average, as did combining measurements from two near-infrared spectroscopy sensors with different wavelength ranges. Ensemble methods were used to further increase model accuracy and provide quantification of model uncertainty, and a feature-permutation method was used for global interpretability of the models.