Abstract
Larval stages are among those most vulnerable to ocean acidification (OA). Projected atmospheric CO2 levels for the end of this century may lead to negative impacts on communities dominated by calcifying taxa with planktonic life stages. We exposed Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) sperm and early life stages to pH T levels of 8.0 (current pH) and 7.6 (2100 level) by manipulating pCO(2) level (380 and 1000 ppm). Sperm activity was examined at ambient temperatures (16-17 degrees C) using individual males as replicates. We also assessed the effects of temperature (ambient and approximate to 20 degrees C) and pH on larval size, survival, respiration and calcification of late trochophore/early D-veliger stages using a cross-factorial design. Increased pCO(2) had a negative effect on the percentage of motile sperm (mean response ratio (R) over bar = 71%) and sperm swimming speed ((R) over bar = 74%), possibly indicating reduced fertilization capacity of sperm in low concentrations. Increased temperature had a more prominent effect on larval stages than pCO(2), reducing performance ( (R) over bar (Size) = 90% and (R) over bar (Survival) = 70%) and increasing energy demand ((R) over bar (Respiration) = 429%). We observed no significant interactions between pCO(2) and temperature. Our results suggest that increasing temperature might have a larger impact on very early larval stages of M. galloprovincialis than OA at levels predicted for the end of the century.