Abstract
•Microbial iron reduction commences as soon as activated sludge becomes anaerobic.•The product of iron reduction is the ferrous iron phosphate mineral vivianite.•More genera with a metabolism related to iron were found in sludge with higher iron content.•Understanding vivianite formation will improve phosphate removal and recovery.
Kinetics of iron reduction, formation of vivianite and the microbial community in activated sludge from two sewage treatment plants (STPs) with low (STP Leeuwarden, applying enhanced biological phosphate removal, EBPR) and high (STP Cologne, applying chemical phosphate removal, CPR) iron dosing were studied in anaerobic batch experiments. The iron reduction rate in CPR sludge (2.99 mg-Fe g VS−1 h−1) was 3-times higher compared to EBPR sludge (1.02 mg-Fe g VS−1 h−1) which is probably caused by its 3-times higher iron content. Accordingly, first order rate constants in both sludges are comparable (0.06 ± 0.001 h−1 in EBPR vs 0.05 ± 0.007 h−1 in CPR sludge), thus potential rates in both sludges are comparable. The measured Fe(III) reduction rates suggest that all iron in STP Leeuwarden and STP Cologne can be turned over within 15 h and 44 h respectively. Mössbauer spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) indicated vivianite formation within 24 h in both sludges. After 24 h, 53% and 34% of all iron were bound in vivianite in the EBPR and CPR sludge respectively. Next generation sequencing (NGS) showed that the microbial community in the CPR sludge comprised more genera with iron-oxidizing and iron-reducing bacteria. Iron reduction and vivianite formation commence once activated sludge is exposed to oxygen free conditions. Our study reveals that the biogeochemistry of iron in STPs is very dynamic. By understanding the interactions between iron and phosphate crucial processes in modern sewage treatment, such as chemical phosphate removal or phosphate recovery from sewage sludge, can be optimized.