Abstract
Learners' attitudes are important for language learning. The attitude toward behavior construct, established in social psychology, was selected to elicit and examine learners' attitudes toward face-to-face and online language learning. Data were collected using two instruments-questionnaires and interviews with two groups: face-to-face (n = 681) and online language learning (n = 287). The results show that the attitude toward behavior concept is an effective theoretical framework for designing questionnaires to understand the factors that influence the participants' attitudes and to predict these in different learning environments. I compared the two groups' results and found a more positive attitude toward language learning in face-to-face environments than in online language learning settings. The mixed-method design enables us to assess learners' attitudes to the language learning environment. This informs curriculum design, policy, and support for teaching and learning.