Abstract
Lead (Pb) is a biologically non-essential element in the soil that brutally affects plants and other living organisms in soil; hence, its removal has become a worldwide concern. In this work, a multifunctional nanoscale zerovalent-iron assisted biochar (nFe degrees/BC) was used to minimize the Pb bioavailability in soil with aim of alleviating the Pb-induced toxicity in sunflower. Results revealed that nFe degrees/BC treatment had significantly improved plant growth (58%), chlorophyll contents (66%), intracellular permeability (60%), and ratio factor (93%), while decreasing the Pb uptake (78%) in plants. The Pb-immobilization and transformation mechanisms were proposed, suggesting that the presence of organic functional groups over the nFe degrees/BC surface might induce the complex formation with Pb by the ions exchange process in soil solution. The XPS analysis confirmed that surface-active components (Fe+, O2-, O*, CO) were the key factor for high Pb-immobilization within soil matrix. In addition, 87% of stable Pb species, including PbCO3, PbO, Pb (OH)(2), and Pb-O-Fe were found in the soil surface. Current findings have exposed the diverse functions of nFe degrees/BC on plant health and established a phenomenon that nFe degrees/BC application could improve the plant agronomic attributes by regulating the homeostasis of antioxidants and Pb uptake.