Abstract
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) or kala-azar is a vector-borne dreaded protozoal infection that is caused by the parasite Leishmania donovani. With increases in the dramatic infection rates, present drug toxicity, resistance, and the absence of an approved vaccine, the development of new antileishmanial compounds from plant sources remains the keystone for the control of visceral leishmaniasis. In this study, we evaluated the leishmanicidal effect of thymoquinone against L. donovani with an in vitro and ex vivo model. Thymoquinone exhibited potent antipromastigote activity with IC50 and IC90 concentrations achieved at 6.33 +/- 1.21 and 20.71 +/- 2.15 mu M, respectively, whereas the IC50 and IC90 concentrations were found to be 7.83 +/- 1.65 and 27.25 +/- 2.20 mu M against the intramacrophagic form of amastigotes, respectively. Morphological changes in promastigotes and growth reversibility study following treatment confirmed the leishmanicidal effect of thymoquinone. Further, thymoquinone exhibited leishmanicidal activities against L. donovani promastigote through cytoplasmic shrinkage, membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation, cellular and nuclear shrinkage, and DNA fragmentation, as observed under scanning and transmission electron microscopy analyses. The antileishmanial activity was exerted via programmed cell death as proved by exposure of phosphatidylserine, DNA nicking by TUNEL assay, and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. Thymoquinone at a concentration of 200 mu M was devoid of any cytotoxic effects against mammalian macrophage cells. Thymoquinone showed strong leishmanicidal activity against L. donovani, which is mediated via an apoptosis mode of parasitic cell death, and accordingly, thymoquinone may be the source of a new lead molecule for the cure of VL.